A self-serving bias occurs when people attribute(歸因) their successes to internal or personal factors but attribute their failures to situational factors beyond their control. The self-serving bias can be seen in the common human tendency(傾向) to take credit for success but to deny responsibility for failure. It may also manifest(表現) itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous(模糊) information in a way that is beneficial to their interests. Self-serving bias may be associated with the better-than-average effect, in which the individual is biased to believe that he or she typically performs better than the average person in areas important to their self-esteem(自尊). This effect, also called "illusory(虛幻的) superiority" has been found when people rate their own driving skill, social sensitivity, leadership ability and many other attributes
Self-handicapping is described as an action or choice which prevents a person from being responsible(有責任的) for failure. According to whom self-handicaps are obstacles(障礙) created, or claimed, by the individual in anticipation(預期) of failing performance. Self-handicapping behaviour allows individuals to externalise failures but internalise success; accepting credit for achievements, but allowing excuses for failings. Self-handicapping can be seen as a method of preserving self-esteem but it can also be used for self-enhancement(自我增強). People may self-handicap to manage the impressions(印象) of others, or of themselves (though studies have been unable to test the latter).
An example of self-handicapping is the student who spends the night before an important exam partying rather than studying. The student fears failing their exam and appearing incapable(無力的). In partying the night before their exam the student has engaged(從事) in self-defeating behaviour and increased the likelihood of poor exam performance. However, in the event of failure, the student can offer fatigue(疲勞) and a hangover(宿醉), rather than lack of ability, as plausible(似是而非的) explanations. Furthermore, should the student receive(接收) positive feedback about their exam, their achievement is enhanced by the fact that they succeeded, despite the handicap.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction(預期) that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms(用語) of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. Although examples of such prophecies can be found in literature as far back as ancient Greece and ancient India, it is 20th-century sociologist Robert K. Merton who is credited with coining the expression "self-fulfilling prophecy" and formalizing(正規化) its structure and consequences. In his book Social Theory and Social Structure, Merton gives as a feature(特徵) of the self-fulfilling prophecy: e.g. when Roxanna falsely believes that her marriage will fail and fears such failure will occur that it actually causes the marriage to fail.
Illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate(過度估算) their ability to control events, for instance to feel that they control outcomes(結果) that they demonstrably(顯然) have no influence over. It is thought to influence gambling behavior and belief in the paranormal(超自然). Along with illusory superiority and optimism(樂觀) bias, the illusion of control is one of the positive illusions.
The illusion is more common in familiar situations, and in situations where the person knows the desired outcome. Feedback that emphasises success rather than failure can increase the effect, while feedback that emphasises failure can decrease or reverse(逆轉) the effect. The illusion is weaker for depressed(消沉的) individuals and is stronger when individuals have an emotional need to control the outcome.
The illusion arises because people lack direct introspective(內省) insight into whether they are in control of events. Instead they judge their degree of control by a process(過程) that is often unreliable. As a result, people see themselves as responsible for events when there is little or no causal connection.
The just-world phenomenon, also called the just-world theory, just-world fallacy, just-world effect, or just-world hypothesis, refers to the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is just so strongly that when they witness(目睹) an otherwise inexplicable(無可解釋的) injustice they will rationalize(合理化) it by searching for things that the victim(受害者) might have done to deserve it. This deflects(轉移) their anxiety, and lets them continue to believe the world is a just place, but often at the expense of blaming victims for things that were not, objectively, their fault.
Another theory entails the need to protect one's own sense of invulnerability(不受傷害). This inspires(鼓舞) people to believe that rape(強暴), for example, only happens to those who deserve or provoke(挑動) the assault(攻擊). This is a way of feeling safer. If the potential(潛在的) victim avoids the behaviors of the past victims then they themselves will remain safe and feel less vulnerable.
Déjà vu (/ˈdeɪʒɑː ˈvuː/ meaning "already seen"), is the experience of feeling sure that one has witnessed(目睹) or experienced a new situation previously(先前) (an individual feels as though an event has already happened or has happened in the recent past), although the exact circumstances of the previous encounter(遭遇) are uncertain. The experience of déjà vu is usually accompanied by a compelling sense of familiarity, and also a sense of "eeriness," "strangeness," "weirdness,"(奇怪) or what Sigmund Freud calls "the uncanny.(神秘的)" The "previous" experience is most frequently attributed(歸因) to a dream, although in some cases there is a firm sense that the experience has genuinely(真正的) happened in the past.
抱歉這週有點忙~所以現在才PO上來~
我會負責印給大家~~~
第一次準備文章~不周到的地方請大家跟我說~
我找了幾個我覺得蠻有趣的心理學現象~
大家如果覺得太嚴肅之類的~跟我說~下次我會改進........orz
Jack